Religion in Russia

Russia has experienced a revival of religion since the start of the new millennium. Over 70% of Russians consider themselves to be Orthodox Christians, and the number is growing. There are also 25 million Muslims, around 1.5 million Buddhists, and over 179,000 Jewish people. The Russian Orthodox Church has been particularly active in attracting new followers due to its image as the true Russian religion. But Christianity wasnt the first religion that Russians followed. Here are some main historical periods in the evolution of religion in Russia. Key Takeaways: Religion in Russia Over 70% of Russians consider themselves to be Russian Orthodox Christians.Russia was pagan until the tenth century, when it adopted Christianity as a way to have a united religion.Pagan beliefs have survived alongside Christianity.In Soviet Russia, all religion was banned.Since the 1990s, many Russians have rediscovered religion, including Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and Slavic Paganism.The 1997 law on religion has made it more difficult for less established religious groups in Russia to register, worship, or exercise the freedom of religious belief.The Russian Orthodox Church has a privileged position and gets to decide which other religions can be officially registered. Early Paganism Early Slavs were pagans and had a multitude of deities. Most of the information about the Slavic religion comes from the records made by Christians who brought Christianity to Russia, as well as from Russian folklore, but there is still a lot that we dont know about the early Slav paganism. Slavic gods often had several heads or faces. Perun was the most important deity and represented thunder, while Mother Earth was revered as the mother of all things. Veles, or Volos, was the god of abundance, since he was responsible for the cattle. Mokosh was a female deity and was associated with weaving. Early Slavs performed their rituals in the open nature, worshiping trees, rivers, stones, and everything around them. They saw the forest as a border between this world and the Underworld, which is reflected in many folktales where the hero has to cross the forest in order to achieve their goal. Establishment of the Russian Orthodox Church In the tenth century, Prince Vladimir The Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus, decided to unite his people and create an image of Kievan Rus as a strong, civilized country. Vladimir himself was an ardent pagan who erected wooden statues of deities, had five wives and around 800 concubines, and had a reputation of a bloodthirsty warrior. He also disliked Christianity because of his rival brother Yaropolk. However, Vladimir could see that uniting the country with one clear religion would be beneficial. The choice was between Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and within it, Catholicism or Eastern Orthodox Church. Vladimir rejected Islam as he thought that it would pose too many restrictions on the freedom-loving Russian soul. Judaism was rejected because he believed that he could not adopt a religion that had not helped the Jewish people hold on to their own land. Catholicism was deemed too stern, and so Vladimir settled on Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In 988, during a military campaign in Byzantine, Vladimir demanded to marry Anna, sister of Byzantine emperors. They agreed, providing that he is baptized beforehand, which he agreed to. Anna and Vladimir married in a Christian ceremony, and upon his return to Kiev, Vladimir ordered the demolition of any pagan deity statues and a country-wide baptism of his citizens. The statues were chopped and burned or thrown into the river. With the advent of Christianity, paganism became an underground religion. There were several pagan uprisings, all violently squashed. The North-Eastern parts of the country, centered around Rostov, were particularly hostile to the new religion. The dislike of the clergy among the peasants can be seen in Russian folktales and mythology (byliny). Ultimately, most of the country continued with dual allegiance to both Christianity and, in everyday life, to paganism. This is reflected even now in the highly superstitious, ritual-loving Russian character. Religion in Communist Russia As soon as the Communist era began in 1917, the Soviet government made it its job to eradicate religion in the Soviet Union. Churches were demolished or turned into social clubs, the clergy was shot or sent to camps, and it became forbidden to teach religion to ones own children. The main target of the anti-religion campaign was the Russian Orthodox Church, as it had the most followers. During WWII, the Church experienced a short revival as Stalin looked for ways to increase the patriotic mood, but that quickly ended after the war. Russian Christmas, celebrated on the night of January 6, was no longer a public holiday, and many of its rituals and traditions moved to the New Years Eve, which even now remains the most loved and celebrated Russian holiday. While most main religions were not outlawed in the Soviet Union, the state promoted its policy of state atheism, which was taught at school and encouraged in academic writing. Islam was at first treated slightly better than Christianity, due to Bolsheviks view of it as a center of the reaction. However, that ended around 1929, and Islam experienced similar treatment as other religions, with mosques shut down or turned into warehouses. Judaism had a similar fate as Christianity in the Soviet Union, with the added persecution and discrimination, especially during Stalin. Hebrew was only taught in schools for diplomats, and most synagogues were closed under Stalin and then Khrushchev. Thousands of Buddhist monks were killed during the Soviet Union, too. In the late 1980s and in the 1990s, the more open environment of the Perestroika encouraged the opening of many Sunday schools and a general resurgence of interest in Orthodox Christianity. Religion in Russia Today The 1990s marked the beginning of a revival in religion in Russia. Christian cartoons were being shown on main TV channels, and new churches were built or old ones restored. However, it is on the cusp of the millennium that many Russians began associating the Russian Orthodox Church with the true Russian spirit. Paganism has also become popular again, after centuries of repression. Russians see in it an opportunity to connect with their Slavic roots and rebuild an identity different from the West. In 1997, a new law On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations was passed, which acknowledged Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism as traditional religions in Russia. The Russian Orthodox Church, which nowadays acts as a privileged religion of Russia, has the power to decide which other religions can be registered as official religions. This has meant that some religions, for example, Jehovahs Witnesses, are banned in Russia, while others, such as some Protestant churches or the Catholic Church, have considerable problems with registration, or limitations on their rights within the country. There have also been more restrictive laws adopted in some Russian regions, which means that the situation with the freedom of religious expression varies across Russia. Overall, any religions or religious organizations that are considered non-traditional according to the federal law, have experienced issues such as being unable to build or own places of worship, harassment from the authorities, violence, and denial of access to media time. Ultimately, the number of Russians who consider themselves to be Orthodox Christians is currently at over 70% of the population. At the same time, over a third of Orthodox Christian Russians do not believe in the existence of God. Only around 5% actually attend church regularly and follow the church calendar. Religion is a matter of national identity rather than faith for the majority of contemporary Russians.

The Impact Of Diversified Workforce And How Management...

Abstract The hospitality industry around the globe is characterized by the existence of diversified workforce. As a result, it requires highly skilled Human Resource Management (HRM). The research paper here tries to acknowledge the impact of diversified workforce and how management handles their employees from different cultural backgrounds. The paper gives a brief background of the story, followed by an extensive literature review. The literature review section focuses on various theories and models of eminent authors and research scholars. The theories aim at providing knowledge regarding the benefits, challenges and opportunities of having a diversified culture in the organizations. While some authors emphasize on adopting diversification in the companies, others point out the disadvantages related to having employees from different cultural backgrounds. They also offer practical recommendations to the HR managers to help them successfully deal with the cultural diversity issues. The main aim of the paper is to identify the research gap identified in the literature review section. The research methodology applied here is based on secondary data collection. Secondary data are such data which have been previously collected by some agency for a purpose and are merely compiled from the original source for use in diverse connection. The study has been assembled with the help of various journals, books, websites, etc. Theories have been used that focuses on how culturalShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Diversity On Workforce Diversity Essay1993 Words   |  8 PagesThe increasing globalisation in today’s world means more interaction between people from different ethical and cultural backgrounds than ever before. Maximising and Capitalising on Workforce diversity is the aim of most organisations today. 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Causation of Serial Killers Essay - 2039 Words

â€Å"I just know it’s a dark side of me. It kind of controls me. I personally think it’s- I know it’s not very Christian, but I actually think its demons within me† (Wenzl et al. 308). Dennis Rader, infamously known as BTK, commented about what he called his â€Å"factor X† above, which he claimed was his motive for killing. The demons within Rader supposedly caused him to murder four members from the Otero Family leaving the youngest daughter hanging in the basement nearly naked and gagged (Wenzl et al. 10). We now know that these demons within and â€Å"factor X† that Rader was referring to was his psychopathology, but we cannot ignore that these traits were triggered by early childhood experience. His early childhood experiences as in many other†¦show more content†¦In order to prevent this, he consumed and soaked himself in the blood of those he had slain (Brogaard). Chase suffered from paranoia as a result of his schizophrenia, making him believe that there actually were Nazis trying to kill him. Similar to Watts, Chase also lost his sense of reality allowing his paranoia to consume him and as a result he killed multiple people. This inability to differentiate between fantasy and reality is significant among all psychotic serial killers. Psychotic serial killers can also be triggered by their relationships with family members and loss of close relatives, such as in the case of Ed Gein (Morrison 51). Ed Gein was also a Schizophrenic, who began digging up graves and most notably skinning his victims to make suits consisting of women’s breasts and genitals (Morrison 52). People hypothesized that Gein wore these suits made from his female victims because he wanted a sex change (Brogaard). This is incorrect because in an interview with Morrison, Gein made it clear that they were wrong and they were only assumptions (quote and page). 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The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages 950-1350

In this book it revealed how the middle ages were not dead times, but mere it was the just beginning of everything, such as it gave people more freedom and independence and allowed to people to explore trading new things with others. Basically in the beginning of the book Lopez starts talking about the Roman world and also about the commerce and the effect of the Barbarian invasion, and after that industry started sky rocketing because there was tremendous commercial growth. Also he states that agriculture surplus. Another thing he states is the business of penetration of the Jews, and the how adventurousness, the Italians and there role of the credit and value of contracts among and their developments in their transportation. After understanding this book I realized that Middle Ages was the birth of capitalism, in this middle classes, were modern world. Often many of these political issues are happening in our time like class, warfare, hostility to business and the disastrous role of taxation by destructive central government and it was necessary for the freedom to make sure the economic growth is in stable position. Also another word that was frequently used was the middles age was also known as â€Å"The Age of Faith†. Another reason was it was during the gothic cathedral were the most fascinating monuments. During this time â€Å"The Commercial Revolution was of Middle Ages from 950-1350 and this by another named S. Lopez and this story reminds us that the past indeed aShow MoreRelated_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 PagesFit of a Line 221 5.4 Nonlinear Relationships and Transformations 238 5.5 Logistic Regression (Optional) 255 5.6 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Statistical Analyses 264 Activity 5.1 Exploring Correlation and Regression 267 Activity 5.2 Age and Flexibility 268 Graphing Calculator Explorations 272 6 Probability 279 6.1 Chance Experiments and Events 279 6.2 Deï ¬ nition of Probability 288 ââ€"   Contents ix 6.3 Basic Properties of Probability 295 6.4 Conditional Probability 302Read MoreHsc General Math Textbook with Answers153542 Words   |  615 PagesPrinted in China by Printplus Limited. National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication data Powers, G. K. (Gregory K.) Cambridge HSC general mathematics / G. K. Powers. 9780521138345 (pbk.) Cambridge general mathematics. For secondary school age. Mathematics–Textbooks. Mathematics–Problems, exercises, etc. 510 ISBN 978-0-521-13834-5 Paperback Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pagesRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 Pagesexample, building a road 30 years ago was a somewhat simple process. Today, each area has increased in complexity, including materials, specifications, codes, aesthetics, equipment, and required specialists. Similarly, in today’s digital, electronic age it is becoming h ard to find a new product that does not contain at least one microchip. Product complexity has increased the need to integrate divergent technologies. Project management has emerged as an important discipline for achieving this taskRead MoreQuality Improvement328284 Words   |  1314 Pagesthe formal beginning of statistical quality control. Toward the end of the 1920s, Harold F. Dodge and Harry G. Romig, both of Bell Telephone Laboratories, developed statistically based acceptance sampling as an alternative to 100% inspection. By the middle of the 1930s, statistical quality-control methods were in wide use at Western Electric, the manufacturing arm of the Bell System. However, the value of statistical quality control was not widely recognized by industry. World War II saw a greatly expanded

Animals of Wonderland Free Essays

string(289) " several of the designs in this opening sequence: those on pages 8 and 10 are â€Å"too matter-of-fact to be necessary,† the â€Å"elongated Alice stands merely looking round-eyed,† and the second vignette of Alice swimming with the mouse â€Å"makes the first superfluous\." TITLE: | The Animals of Wonderland: Tenniel as Carroll’s Reader| SOURCE: | Criticism 45 no4 383-415 Fall 2003| The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://wsupress. We will write a custom essay sample on Animals of Wonderland or any similar topic only for you Order Now wayne. edu/ ROSE LOVELL-SMITH WHEN JOHN TENNIEL was providing 42 illustrations for Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland in 1864 he was in his mid-forties, an established illustrator and a Punch cartoonist. At that time C. L. Dodgson and Lewis Carroll were equally unknown as authors, for adults or children. Tenniel, on the other hand, already had a professional understanding of the visual codes and illustrative techniques of his day, and already had an audience–an adult rather than a child audience–who would expect from him a certain level of technical proficiency, humor, and social nous. Tenniel’s illustrations should therefore interest us today not just for their remarkable and continuing success as a felicitous adjunct to Carroll’s text, but also as the first–arguably, the best–Victorian reading or interpretation of Carroll’s text. After all, as a reader Tenniel enjoyed considerable advantages, including his personal position and experience, his access to the author’s own illustrations to the manuscript version of the story, and access to the author himself. In his study of illustration in children’s literature, Words about Pictures, Perry Nodelman has argued that â€Å"the pictures in a sequence act as schemata for each other†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat is, all the expectations, understanding, and information we bring to reading an illustrated book, and all the information we accumulate as our reading proceeds, â€Å"becomes a schema for each new page of words and each new picture as we continue throughout a book. (FN1) If this is so, all Tenniel’s choices relating to subject matter, size, position, and style of illustration must come to operate, as we proceed through Alice in Wonderland, as a kind of guide to reading Carroll’s text. An examination of Tenniel’s opening sequence of illustrations as they appeared on the page in the 1866 edition of Alice in Wonderland(FN2) will therefore begin to reveal Tenniel’s preoccupations, the kind of interpretation of Carroll’s text he is nterested in making. As Wi lliam Empson pointed out in 1935, two aspects of Alice are traditional in children’s stories: the idea of characters of unusual size (miniatures and giants) and the idea of the talking beast. (FN3) Tenniel’s opening drawing, the White Rabbit at the head of chapter 1, draws on both these traditions. The rabbit occupies a point between animal and human, simultaneously both these things and neither of them, an implication hardly made so firmly by Carroll’s text. The rabbitness of the rabbit is emphasized by the meadow setting, the absence of trousers, and the careful attention paid to anatomy and proportion. But the rabbit is slightly distorted towards the human by his upright posture, his clothing and accessories, his pose, and his human eye and hand. Less obviously, Tenniel also extends Carroll’s text by offering information about the size of the rabbit. From the grass and dandelion clock (a visual joke) in the background the reader grasps the rabbit as rather larger than normal bunny size: about the size of a toddler or small child, perhaps. As this illustration was invented by Tenniel (Carroll’s headpiece illustration shows Alice, her sister, and the book), the contrast is clear between Carroll, whose picture draws attention to the frame of the story, to the affectionate relationship of sisters, and thereby to Alice’s membership of the human family, and Tenniel, who selects a traditional story idea that shifts the focus another way, toward a mediation between different kinds familiar from those many forms of art in which animal behavior is used to represent human behavior. In further illustrations, Tenniel offers more images suggestive of unusual relative size. The second picture, page 8, shows Alice too large to go through the little door. On page 10 she holds the bottle labeled â€Å"DRINK ME† which will shrink her; on page 15 she is growing taller, with the text elongated to match. Then comes page 18, where the frame and larger size suggest that here is an important picture. In it the human/animal rabbit and the idea of Alice’s unusual size occur together. Alice looks gigantic in relation to the hallway, and the White Rabbit, normal size for the hallway (it appears) but perhaps (in that case) outsize for a rabbit, is much reduced from the importance he assumed in the first illustration and is shown fleeing from her terrifying figure. The pool of tears illustration on page 26 also relates to these themes. Here a fully clad human, Alice, is depicted much the same size as the unclothed mouse with which she swims. Note, too, that in the text, Alice frightens the mouse away as she had previously frightened the rabbit, although this time it is by talking about her pet, her cat Dinah. The reader who ponders this opening sequence of illustrations might reflect that Alice would also be frightened of Dinah if she met her while still mouse-sized. The schemata, then, direct the reader towards a cluster of ideas in which animal fears and anxieties about survival are connected with images of lesser or greater relative size. FN4) Tenniel appears to have arrived at this interpretation independently: while he does frequently follow Carroll’s designs closely in the subject and overall approach to an illustration (Michael Hancher provides some useful opportunities to make comparisons),(FN5) of the pictures just discussed only the one of Alice growing taller at the head of chapter 2 very much resembles a parallel drawing in Carroll’s manuscript. Moreover, when Tenniel does follow Carroll in choice of subject he usually makes significant changes in treatment: Tenniel’s Alice, for instance, having slipped into the pool of tears, is very much more alarmed than Carroll’s Alice. (FN6) Edward Hodnett, who reviewed Tenniel’s work for the Alice books picture by picture, makes rather slighting remarks about several of the designs in this opening sequence: those on pages 8 and 10 are â€Å"too matter-of-fact to be necessary,† the â€Å"elongated Alice stands merely looking round-eyed,† and the second vignette of Alice swimming with the mouse â€Å"makes the first superfluous. You read "Animals of Wonderland" in category "Essay examples" (FN7) Hodnett seems to me to have missed the point. These designs are in my view extremely consistent in seeking and developing a particular nexus of ideas. Despite the evident connection between many Tenniel illustrations and Carroll’s own illustrations, then , this is clearly Tenniel’s own interpretation. But if this is so, what is to be made of it? My thesis in this paper is that through his animal drawings, Tenniel offers a visual angle on the text of Alice in Wonderland that evokes the life sciences, natural history, and Darwinian ideas about evolution, ideas closely related by Tenniel to Alice’s size changes, and to how these affect the animals she meets. (FN8) As I will show, this is partly a matter of Tenniel’s â€Å"drawing out† an underlying field of reference in Carroll’s text. I will also argue, however, that when Tenniel’s approach to his animal subjects is compared to that in earlier and contemporary illustrated natural istory books, the viewer is conscious of resemblances which indicate that Tenniel’s pictures are best situated and read in that context. The effect of the initial sequence described above, for instance, is that as chapter 3 unfolds Alice’s encounters with various different creatures, the illustrations begin to re-create Alice itself as a kind of zany na tural history for children. Our post-Freudian view of Alice in Wonderland tends to be of a private, heavily encoded, inward exploration or adventure. But Tenniel’s reading, I would argue, offers us an outward-looking text, a public adventure, a jocular reflection on the natural history craze, on reading about natural history, and on Darwin’s controversial new theory of natural selection. I will return to Tenniel as reader later, but in order to establish that this interpretation is no mere add-on but a genuine response to the text, I must first deal with science, natural history, and evolutionary ideas as themes that Carroll himself originates. Interest in contemporary ideas about the animal kingdom is signaled early on in Alice in Wonderland, in chapter 2, when Alice finds that the well-known children’s recitation piece â€Å"How doth the little busy bee† has been mysteriously ousted from her mind by new verses that celebrate a predator, the crocodile. Carroll’s parody of Isaac Watts’s pious poem for children(FN9) thereby establishes his book’s reference to a newer, more scientific view of nature–approaching a controversially Darwinist view. It does this by mocking and displacing the worldview often called natural theology. According to natural theology, a set of convictions much touted in children’s reading, God’s existence can be deduced from the wondrous design of his creation. The universe is benign and meaningful, a book of signs (like the industrious bee) of God’s benevolent and educative intentions just waiting to be read by humans. Carroll’s crocodile, all tooth and claw, signifies other things: amorality, the struggle for existence, predation of the weaker by the stronger. Readers of Alice in Wonderland are also likely to notice that the animal characters do not behave or talk much like animals in traditional fairy tales or fables. They are neither helpers nor donors nor monsters nor prophetic truth-tellers, the main narrative functions of animals in traditional fairy tales,(FN10) but nor are they the exemplary figures illustrative of human fallibilities and moralities familiar from fables. They do not teach lessons about kindness to animals, as animals in children’s stories often did, and they do not much resemble the creatures in nursery rhymes or jingles or Edward Lear’s nonsensical poems either. Instead, they talk, chopping logic, competing with Alice and each other, and often mentioning things â€Å"natural† animals might be imagined to talk about, like fear, death, and being eaten. I think Denis Crutch is also roughly right when he points out that there is in Alice a hierarchy of animals equivalent to the Victorian class system but also suggesting a competitive model of nature: the white rabbit, caterpillar, and March Hare seem to be gentlemen, frog and fish are footmen, Bill the lizard is bullied by everybody, hedgehogs and flamingos are made use of, and the dormouse and the guinea pigs are victimized by larger animals and by humans. FN11) William Empson’s 1935 essay notes how Carroll’s ideas and manuscript illustrations associate evolutionary theories with Alice in Wonderland. (FN12) This is a crucial point and, I believe, the best explanation for the presence of so many animals in Wonderland. It was after all Carroll who put a dodo, best known for b eing extinct, into the text,(FN13) and Carroll who first included an ape, that key symbol of evolutionary debate, in his drawing of the motley crowd of beasts in the pool of tears. But Carroll’s evolutionary reference is much more extensive than Empson found it, for a Darwinist view of life as competitive struggle is also promoted by Alice, who–apparently unconsciously, as if she really cannot help it–repeatedly reminds us that in life one must either eat or be eaten. Alice will keep talking about Dinah to the little creatures she meets who are the natural victims of cats (26-27), she has to admit to the pigeon that she herself has eaten eggs (73), and in the Mock Turtle scene she has to check herself rather than reveal that she has eaten lobster and whiting (148, 152). The Mock Turtle, of course, is a very creature of the table, while Dinah the predator, the aboveground cat, has a place maintained for her in Wonderland by the Cheshire Cat, a friendly but slightly sinister appearing and disappearing cat whose most significant body part is his grinning, tooth-filled mouth (he grins like the crocodile, as Nina Auerbach has noted). (FN14) The â€Å"little bright-eyed terrier† of which the aboveground Alice is so fond (27) also has other-selves in Wonderland, Fury in the Mouse’s Tale, the puppy in chapter 4. Moreover, the Mouse’s Tale–the next poem in the book after the crocodile poem–talks about predation as if it were a legal process. The reader should therefore take the hint and connect the animal â€Å"eat or be eaten† motif elsewhere in the story with the trial scene in the last stage of the book. Carroll has the White Rabbit make this association of ideas when he mutters â€Å"The Duchess! The Duchess! Oh my dear paws! Oh my fur and whiskers! She’ll get me executed, as sure as ferrets are ferrets! † (41). This is one of those moments when Alice reveals its ferocious undercurrent. The White Rabbit here anticipates legal execution as simultaneous with the process of being prepared for table: that is, these â€Å"civilized† human behaviors are proffered by Carroll as analogous to predation by a â€Å"natural† enemy, ferrets. Alice herself, by kicking Bill the Lizard up the chimney (an incident memorably illustrated by Tenniel in a very funny picture) and by looking on approvingly while the guinea pigs are so unkindly treated in court, inverts the theme of kindness to animals established in more orthodox children’s literature like Maria Edgeworth’s tale of â€Å"Simple Susan,† where a girl’s pet lamb is saved from the slaughterer’s knife. FN15) In Alice in Wonderland there is humorous delight in the misappropriation of the creatures in the croquet scene, and there are many other versions of a cruel carnival in the book: for instance, Alice imagines herself being set to watch a mousehole by her own cat. She also resents â€Å"being ordered about by mice and rabbits† (46)–a phrase that suggests the â€Å"world upside down† of carnival but which might also be taken as summing up the new evolutionary predicament of humanity. Fallen down the rabbit hole from her lordly position at the top of the Great Chain of Being, Alice instead finds herself, through a series of size changes, continually being repositioned in the food chain. The importance of the theme of predation, â€Å"the motif of eating and being eaten,† is such that it has attracted a number of commentaries. It is fully described by Margaret Boe Birns in â€Å"Solving the Mad Hatter’s Riddle† and by Nina Auerbach in â€Å"Alice and Wonderland: A Curious Child. (FN16) Birns remarks in opening her essay that â€Å"Most of the creatures in Wonderland are relentless carnivores, and they eat creatures who, save for some outer physical differences, are very like themselves, united, in fact, by a common ‘humanity. ‘† Birns therefore even cites a crocodile-eating fish as a case of â€Å"cannibalism,†(FN17) quoting in support of this idea Alice’s â€Å"Nurse! Do let’s pretend that I’m a hungry hyaena and you’re a bone! (Looking-Glass, 8). She also remarks that Wonderland contains creatures whose only degree of self-definition is expressing a desire to be eaten or drunk, and offers other comments on scenes in Through the Looking-Glass where, as she puts it, â€Å"food can become human, human beings can become food. â€Å"(FN18) I do not always find â€Å"cannibal† readings supported by the parts of the text in question. Auerbach also makes claims about cannibalism, but a little differently, referring the idea of â€Å"eat or be eaten† back to Alice, her â€Å"subtly cannibalistic hunger,†(FN19) the â€Å"unconscious cannibalism involved in the very fact of eating and the desire to eat. â€Å"(FN20) Auerbach associates this interpretation with Dodgson’s own attitude to food. But textual support for the quality Auerbach calls Alice’s cannibalism seems lacking. Alice does not really eye the other animals in her pool of tears with â€Å"a strange hunger† as Auerbach suggests,(FN21) nor do the Hatter and the Duchess â€Å"sing savage songs about eating† as Auerbach claims. FN22) To describe a panther eating an owl as cannibalism, Auerbach(FN23) must assume (like Birns) that the creatures in Alice are definitely to be read as humans in fur and feathers. My argument is that they need not be so read: the point might be their and Alice’s animal nature. Nor d oes the food at Queen Alice’s dinner party at the end of Through the Looking-Glass â€Å"begin to eat the guests†(FN24) as Auerbach claims, although food does misbehave in Looking-Glass and the Pudding might have this in mind (Looking-Glass, 206). Overall, however, in my view the preoccupation of Alice in Wonderland with creatures eating other creatures is much better accounted for by the â€Å"more sinister and Darwinian aspects of nature†(FN25) which Auerbach and Birns(FN26) also recognize as a part of the Alice books. I now return to my main argument, that Tenniel’s illustrations pick up on but also extend this Darwinist and natural history field of reference in Carroll’s text. As already noted, Tenniel’s drawings of animals do not stylistically suggest a â€Å"children’s fairy tale†(FN27) but rather produce Alice as a kind of natural history by resembling those in the plentiful and lavishly illustrated popular natural histories of the day (see figs. 1 and 2). My argument therefore differs from Michael Hancher’s, which emphasizes social and satirical contexts by comparing pictures of various Wonderland and Looking-Glass creatures to those in Tenniel’s and others’ Punch cartoons. FN28) While Hancher establishes the relationship with Punch as an important one, however, the most convincing animal resemblances he reproduces from Alice in Wonderland (I am not here concerned with Through the Looking-Glass) amount to only two pictures, the Cheshire Cat in a tree resembling the â€Å"Up a Tree† cartoon of a raccoon,(FN29) and the ape on page 35 of Alice resembling the ape in â€Å"Bomba’s Big Brother,†( FN30) Tenniel’s frog footman and fish footman are Grandvillian figures with animal heads but human bodies, and also evidently suggest social commentary. But they stand apart from the argument I am presenting here because no effort is made by Tenniel to present them as animals. The satiric side of Tenniel’s animal illustrations in Alice, hinted at by echoes of Punch, is never very dominant, then, and should not be seen as precluding another field of reference in natural history reading. The scope, persistence, eccentricity, and variety of the natural history craze–or rather, series of crazes–that swept Britain between 1820 and 1870 are described for the general reader by Lynn Barber in The Heyday of Natural History and by others in more specialized publications, and need not be redescribed here. (FN31) The importance of illustration in contemporary natural history publishing, however, is central to my argument and must be touched on briefly. Even in the midcentury climate of Victorian self-improvement and self-education, the volume of this well-established branch of publishing is impressive: the standard of illustration in popular periodicals and books was high, and sales were also impressively high in Victorian terms. Rev. John George Wood, according to his son and biographer Theodore Wood, a pioneer in writing natural history in nontechnical language, had reasonable sales for his one-volume The Illustrated Natural History in 1851 and very good sales for Common Objects of the Sea Shore in 1857. But when Routledge brought out his lavishly illustrated Common Objects of the Country in 1858 it sold 100,000 copies within a week of publication, and the first edition was followed by many others, a figure worth comparing with Darwin’s more modest first-edition sell-out of 1,250 copies–or, indeed, with Dickens’s sales of Bleak House (1852), which were 35,000 in the first two years. The result of Wood’s success was a much grander publishing venture by Routledge, Wain and Routledge, a three-volume The Illustrated Natural History with new drawings including some by Joseph Wolf: volume 1 (1859) was on mammals, volume 2 (1862) on birds–the frontispiece is reproduced in figure 2–and volume 3 (1863) on reptiles, fish, and mollusks. FN32) Wood’s astonishingly prolific career as a popularizer, however, of which I have described only a tiny fraction (he was dashing off such productions as Anecdotes of Animal Life, Every Boy’s Book, and Feathered Friends in this decade as well), is in line with much other more or less theologically inclined and intellectually respectable natural history publishing in the 1850s and 1860s, often by clergymen. Children were important consumers of such books and periodicals and sometimes are obviously their main market, and a number of fictional works, such as Charles Kingsley’s The Water-Babies (1863) and Margaret Gatty’s Parables from Nature, of which the first four series appeared between 1855 and 1864 (that is, in the decade prior to Carroll’s publication of Alice in Wonderland), capitalize on the contemporary conviction that natural history was a subject especially appropriate for children. (FN33)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tenniel connects his Alice and natural history illustration by a number of stylistic allusions. He borrows the conventional techniques of realism, such as the cross-hatching and fine lines used to suggest light, shade, and solidity of form in the Mock Turtle’s shell and flippers, or the crabs’ and lobster’s claws. Accuracy in proportion and a high level of anatomical detail are equally important. As can be seen by comparing figures 1 and 2, too, the grouping of subjects may also be suggestive–a point first noted by Narda Schwartz, who also drew attention to the resemblance between the etching of the dodo in Wood’s three-volume natural history and Tenniel’s dodo. FN34) Also significant is the way Tenniel’s design showing the creatures recently emerged from the pool of tears includes a rather furry-haired Alice among, and on a level with, the beasts and birds. Carroll’s own pictures for the pool of tears sequence have the quite different effect of separating Alice from the animal world, a point 1 will return to. Another Tenn iel habit that suggests natural history illustration is his provision of sketchy but realistic and appropriate backgrounds. Here Tenniel’s viewpoint sometimes miniaturizes the reader, setting the viewpoint low and thus letting us in on the ground level of a woodland world magnified for our information (compare figs. 3 and 4). When Alice stands on tiptoe to peep over the edge of a mushroom, when she carries the pig baby in the woods or talks to the Cheshire Cat, Tenniel uses a typical natural history technique, placing a familiar woodland flower–a foxglove–in the background in such away as to remind the reader of Alice’s size at that time. Similarly, Tenniel makes use of the difference between vignettes for simple or single subjects, and framed illustrations, including full-page illustrations, for larger-scale and more important and complex subjects, in a way that very closely resembles a similar distinction in natural history illustration–popular natural histories like Wood’s tend to use large, framed illustrations to make generalized statements, showing, for instance, a group of different kinds of rodent, while vignettes present an individual of one species. And above all, although Tenniel certainly endows his creatures with personality and facial expressions, his animals, unlike his humans, are never grotesques. In fact, nineteenth-century natural history illustration also delights in endowing the most solidly â€Å"realistic† creatures with near-human personality or expressiveness, a quality that Tenniel builds on to good effect, for instance, in his depiction of the lawyer-parrots, which remind one of Edward Lear’s magnificent macaws (see figs. 5, 6, and 7). Thus while Tenniel’s animal portraits reflect the Victorians’ pleasure in their expanding knowledge of the variety of creatures in the world, they also faithfully reproduce the contemporary assimilation of this variety to familiar human social types, a sleight of hand of which Audubon, for example, is a master: his Great Blue Heron manages also to subtly suggest a sly old gentleman, probably shortsighted, and with side-whiskers. In the visual world inhabited by Tenniel, then, the differing works of Audubon and Grandville (the latter could depict a heron as a priest merely by giving the bird spectacles) slide together. Where few of Tenniel’s successors have been able to resist the temptation to turn the animals in Alice in Wonderland into cartoon or humorous creations, though, it is Tenniel’s triumph that he drew his creatures straight, or almost straight: the Times review of Alice in Wonderland (December 26, 1865) particularly noted for praise Tenniel’s â€Å"truthfulness †¦ in the delineation of animal forms. â€Å"(FN35) It was, indeed, his skill in drawing animals that first established his reputation as an illustrator, when he provided illustrations for Rev. Thomas James’s Aesop’s Fables in 1848. FN36)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Can sources for Tenniel’s remarkable animal drawings be more precisely identified? An early biographer of Tenniel records his acknowledgment that he liked to spend time observing the animals at the Zoo. (FN37) However, comparisons between pictures reveal that in addition Tenniel almost certainly consulted scientific illustrations o r recalled them for his Alice in Wonderland drawings. For example, in the mid-eighteenth century George Edwards produced a hand-colored engraving of a dodo which, he wrote, he had copied from a painting of a live dodo brought from Mauritius to Holland. The original painting was acquired by Sir Hans Sloane, passed on to Edwards, and given by him to the British Museum. (FN38) In 1847 C. A. Marlborough painted a picture of a dodo, which is now in the Ashmolean Museum (it was reproduced on the cover of the magazine Oxford Today in 1999). And in 1862 the second volume of J. G. Wood’s The Illustrated Natural History includes a picture of a dodo. (FN39) Compare all these with Tenniel’s dodo (figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11): they surely either have a common ancestor or are copies one from the other. The dodo is a special case in that Tenniel could hardly have studied one at the London zoo. But I wish to put forward a claim that Wood’s 1851 one-volume and, later, expanded three-volume Illustrated Natural History were very probably familiar to Carroll and the small Liddells and also to Tenniel, not only because Wood’s dodo illustration is a possible source for Tenniel’s but because these volumes also display smiling crocodiles, baby eagles in their nest, and the lory,(FN40) as well as illustrations of numerous more familiar animals that appear in the words and/or pictures of Alice, including the edible crab, the lobster, the frog, the dormouse, guinea pigs, flamingos, varieties of fancy pigeon, and so forth. Given the compendious nature of Wood’s works, this is hardly surprising, of course. But Wood must be favored as the source of animal drawings most probably known to Tenniel for the further reason that Wood illustrations often quite strongly resemble Tenniel illustrations, as readers may judge by comparing figures 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16, to the toucan, eagle, and crab from Alice (see fig. 1) and the lobster and dormouse (see Alice in Wonderland, 157 and 97). (FN41)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  No matter how good Tenniel’s famous visual memory, he is unlikely to have drawn such a menagerie without some research. Hancher noted the strong resemblance between a Bewick hedgehog (from the General History of Quadrupeds, 1790, often reprinted) and the evasive croquet-ball hedgehog at Alice’s feet on page 121. (FN42) Bewick’s hedgehog, however, had already been recycled by William Harvey for Wood’s one-volume Illustrated Natural History where Tenniel is equally likely to have seen and remembered it: all three hedgehogs have the same dragging rear foot (see figs. 17, 18, and 19). This is another case, like that of the dodo, where scientific natural history illustrations have been copied, recopied, or reworked for reprinting. A similar argument could be presented about the large number of depictions of sinuous flamingos that Tenniel might have consulted. The volume of contemporary natural history publishing for children and adults, the evident contemporary interest in illustrations of animals, and the resemblance between Tenniel’s and contemporary natural history drawings have important implications: the resemblance indicates that Tenniel is here creating the context within which he wants his pictures to be read. He shows us that he saw (and wanted the viewer to be able to see) Carroll’s animals as â€Å"real† animals, like those that were the objects of current scientific study and theories, at least as much as he saw them as Grandville or Punch-type instruments of social satire, or fairy-tale or fable talking beasts. (FN43)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In line with his scientific interpretation, then, Tenniel in illustrating Alice in Wonderland intensifies Carroll’s reference to Darwin’s theory of evolution by carrying out his own visual editing of the Carroll illustrations in the manuscript. Tenniel makes the ape appear in two consecutive illustrations: in the second, it stares thoughtfully into the eyes of the reader–appearing to claim kinship. Tenniel includes among the creatures in these illustrations on pages 29 and 35 a fancy pigeon, perhaps a fantail or a pouter, which should in my view be taken as a direct reference to Darwin’s argument from the selective breeding of fancy pigeon varieties in chapter 1 of The Origin of Species. FN44) A visual detail that Tenniel introduced into the book, the glass dome in the background to the royal garden scene on page 117, looks like the dome at the old Surrey Zoological Gardens(FN45) and therefore constitutes another reference to the study of animals. And as already noted, Tenniel does not reproduce Carroll’s rather lonely image of Alice abandoned by the animals, which would have had the effect of separating her human figure from the animal ones and thus emphasizing Alice’s difference from them. Instead, Tenniel provides two images of Alice among, and almost of, the animal world, developing a radical implication of Carroll’s text of which Carroll himself was possibly unaware. On the other hand, Carroll’s interest in predation, in the motif of â€Å"eat or be eaten,† is not one on which Tenniel expands. No doubt it would have been thought too frightening for children: one must recall the care taken by Carroll over the positioning of the Jabberwocky illustration in Through the Looking-Glass. FN46) But while Carroll’s text here develops emphatically–albeit peripherally–some ideas that Tenniel could only leave aside, Tenniel’s recognition of the importance of such themes is strongly demonstrated by the puppy picture. This illustration is a particularly large one, dominating the page (55) on which it appears. It is framed, and therefore gives an impression of completion and independent significance, very different from that given b y the more common vignette with its intimate and fluid relationship to the text. These things make it probable that the puppy scene and its illustration were especially important in Tenniel’s reading of Alice in Wonderland. Yet commentaries on Alice in Wonderland tend to ignore the puppy scene, perhaps because critics are often most interested by Carroll’s verbal nonsense, and the puppy is speechless. Indeed, Denis Crutch disapproves of the puppy as â€Å"an intruder from the ‘real’ world† and Goldthwaite takes up this point, commenting that the puppy was Carroll’s â€Å"most glaring aesthetic mistake in †¦ Alice†Ã¢â‚¬â€œneither seems to have noticed that the hedgehogs and flamingos are also not talking beasts. (FN47) Another reader of Tenniel’s illustrations, Isabelle Nieres, takes a similar line, remarking that â€Å"the full-page illustration is perhaps placing too much emphasis on Alice’s encounter with the puppy. â€Å"(FN48) But what Tenniel’s puppy illustration encapsulates, in my view, is the theme of the importance of relative size. Here is Alice’s fearful moment of uncertainty about whether she is meeting a predator or a pet. As reader and Alice will discover, the puppy only wants to play. But Alice is â€Å"terribly frightened all the time at the thought it might be hungry, in which case it would be very likely to eat her up in spite of all her coaxing† (54), and Tenniel’s illustration with the thistle in the foreground towering over the tiny Alice, like many of his memorable illustrations, primarily signifies her anxiety. Later, too, Tenniel’s choice of the lobster as the subject of a drawing is a visual reminder of the transformation of animals into meat: it brings the viewer uncomfortably close to recognition of kinship with the devoured, so human is the lobster and so warily is his eye fixed on the viewer’s. The lobster is another illustration that Hodnett found an inexplicable presence in the text: the song in the text â€Å"provides insufficient excuse for an illustration,† he remarks. (FN49) My analysis of Tenniel’s composite verbal/visual Alice in Wonderland is very different. Possibly going well beyond Carroll’s conscious intentions, Tenniel offers a Wonderland that concurs with the evolutionist view of creation by showing animals and humans as a continuum within which the stronger or larger prey upon the smaller or weaker. The implication–one many readers of Darwin were most reluctant to accept–is that if animals are semihuman, humans may conversely be nothing but evolved animals. Alice’s extraordinary size changes–in which Tenniel is so interested–therefore play a significant role in this new world, for as I already pointed out, it is through her series of size changes that Alice finds herself continually being repositioned in the food chain. Wonderland is truly the place of reversals: its theme of a world upside down is traditional, as Ronald Reichertz has reminded us in an illuminating study that positions Alice in Wonderland in relation to earlier children’s reading. (FN50) Size changes can represent the topsy-turvy, of course. But while Alice has some recognizably Jack-in-Giant-land experiences–like struggling to climb up the leg of a table–and some Tom Thumb experiences–like hiding behind a thistle–what is so weird or Wonderlandish about her story is not her sudden growth spurts but that she transforms rapidly from the small to the large and vice versa. FN51) Alice’s body changes at times suggest being outsize and aggressive–for example, when she is trapped in the White Rabbit’s house and terrifies the little creatures outside, or when she is accused of being an egg-stealing serpent or predator by the pigeon. But she is undersized and therefore vulnerable when s he slips into the pool of tears or when she meets the puppy. (FN52) The size changes connect back to â€Å"eat or be eaten† where the dangers of large and small size, a theme especially horrifying to children, is a traditional one, found in tales of giants and ogres, Hop-o’ my Thumb or Mally Whuppie. FN53) But as we have seen, the Tenniel/Carroll Alice in Wonderland links forward to ideas of predator and prey, eat or be eaten, and the â€Å"animal† nature of humanity, all recently given new urgency by Darwin. A contemporary illustration worth pondering that deals with these important ideas (it appeared at almost exactly the time of the publication of Alice in Wonderland) is the cover of Hardwicke’s Science-Gossip: A Monthly Medium of Interchange Gossip for Students and Lovers of Nature (January 1866). This cover represents (see fig. 20) the scientific technology that interested Carroll, as well as, more sentimentally, the small creatures and plants of woodland and seashore that are a part of the â€Å"natural history† background. These subjects, however, make a mere frame to the central illustration, both grisly and amusing, which is a depiction of the chain of predation, eat or be eaten, in action. One could hardly ask for a more succinct visual summary of this important element in the contemporary contexts of Alice. Recognition of this theme will, as well as accounting for lobster and puppy illustrations, also account for the otherwise somewhat puzzling centrality of Dinah and the Cheshire Cat in Carroll’s text. Nina Auerbach quotes Florence Becker Lennon’s insight that the Cheshire Cat is â€Å"Dinah’s dream-self,† and certainly one or the other is more or less ever-where in Wonderland. (FN54) I think the reason for this must be that this familiar household pet best emphasizes the paradoxical difference between being large, in which state the cat is a delightful little furry companion, and being small, in which state the cat might kill you and eat you. In the Darwinian world, size can be the key to survival. And yet, Carroll selected a smiling crocodile to stand for the new view of creation. The cruelty of the Darwinian world is, in his view, somehow inseparable from delight. To suggest a context for this unexpected but quintessentially nineteenth-century state of mind,(FN55) a comparison may be made here between Carroll’s poetic vision of his particular predator and Henry de la Beche’s 1830 cartoon of life in A More Ancient Dorset; or, Durior Antiquior (see fig. 1). De la Beche was English despite his name, and was the first director of the British Geological Survey. According to Stephen Jay Gould, who includes it in his preface to The Book of Life, de la Beche’s spirited cartoon, simultaneously grim and humorous, was â€Å"reproduced endlessly (in both legitimate and pirated editions)† and is an important model, becoming â€Å"the canonical figure of ancient life at the inception of this genre.  "(FN56) In short, this is the first dinosaur picture. Victorian paintings of nature (showing a similar pleasure to Carroll’s in his crocodile) do tend to center on hunting and predation–see The Stag at Bay–and de la Beche’s influential image, Gould explains, became a thoroughly conventional depiction of prehistory, first, in showing a pond unnaturally crowded with wildlife (rather like Carroll’s pool of tears), and second, in depicting virtually every creature in it as â€Å"either a feaster or a meal†(FN57)–something one may also feel about Carroll’s characters. Particularly striking is the gusto, the pleasurably half-horrified enjoyment of bloody prehistory, in de la Beche’s cartoon, which in my view is very comparable to the enjoyment of the image of the devouring crocodile in Lewis’s brilliant little parody. A slightly unpleasant gusto also animates Alice in Wonderland, a book that fairly crackles with energy although the energy has always been rather hard to account for. While on the official levels of his consciousness Carroll â€Å"stood apart from the theological storms of the time,†(FN58) is it possible that the news of evolution through natural selection was, on another level of his mind, good news to him as to many other Victorians, coming as a kind of mental liberation? Humanity might well have found crushing, at times, the requirements of moral responsibility and constant self-improvement imposed by mid-Victorian ideals of Christian duty. Alice, for one, young as she is, has already thoroughly internalized many rules of conduct, and Alice’s creator, equipped as he was with what Donald Rackin has called a â€Å"rage for standards and order,†(FN59) revels in the oversetting of order (as well as disowning this oversetting thoroughly when Alice awakens from her dream). The exhilaration of an amoral anti-society in Alice in Wonderland may be, therefore, in part the exhilaration of a Darwinist dream, of selfishness without restraint. As we all know, Alice’s route out of Wonderland is to grow out of it. In closing this essay a final suggestion may be made about Carroll and his self-depiction in Wonderland. If the book is full of expressions of anxiety about relative size–and the dangers of largeness and smallness–this may not merely be because a new theory of evolution by natural selection had enlivened this ancient theme. Possibly Carroll had adapted this theory as a private way of symbolizing for himself the anxieties and dangers of his relationship with Alice and the other Liddell children. In Morton N. Cohen’s biography Lewis Carroll, a table numbers the occurrences of guilty self-reproach and resolves to amend in Carroll’s diaries and shows how these peaked at the time of his deepest involvement with the Liddell family. (FN60) Is it possible that Carroll, far from suffering a repressed interest in little girls, consciously acknowledged and wrestled in private prayer with his own impossible desires? It seems to become ever more difficult, rather than easier, to read this aspect of Carroll’s life. In a recent Times Literary Supplement (February 8, 2002), Karoline Leach argues that Carroll’s friendships with children were emphasized in his nephew Stuart Collingwood’s biography to distract attention from the potentially more scandalous fact of the older Carroll’s friendships with mature women. A letter in response by Jenny Woolf, on February 15, points out that Carroll’s sisters continued to recognize Carroll’s women friends, so obviously perceived these friendships as chaste, but reminds us of the possibility that Dodgson may have cultivated girl children as friends because of their innocence, because they were sexually â€Å"safe† to him, rather than because they were dangerously enticing. A response to this position, of course, would be that the assiduity with which Carroll cultivated friendships with small girls seems out of proportion to such a purpose. Whatever the truth of these matters, it appears to me that Carroll, distressed by the emotional battles documented in his diary, might well have developd a set of imaginative scenarios in which a little girl’s growing up or down is reversible according to her own desire: this offers one kind of explanation of some of the more mysterious events of Wonderland. The dangerous but exhilarating aspects of Carroll’s relationship with his little friends seems to fit neatly into a â€Å"tooth and claw† model of society, too, for each party to such a friendship, although acting in innocence and affection, has a kind of reserve capacity to destroy, to switch from pet to predator. Carroll might even have dramatized himself as a beast in a Darwinian world in relation to these little girls who are never the right size for him. At times he is only the pet–a romping, anxious-to-please, but oversized puppy. But there are other times when he might fear becoming the predator, a crocodile whose welcoming smile masks the potential to devour. And conversely, of course, Carroll’s beloved little friends had the monstrous capacity to destroy him, morally and socially, if he should ever overstep the boundaries of decency and trust. Tenniel, presumably unaware of any secret underside to Carroll’s life, was anyway debarred by Victorian regard for children as viewers from depicting the savage underside of Alice. But by referring the reader outward to current controversies and current interests in the natural sciences, he has succeeded wonderfully in rendering in art both Carroll’s, and his own, grasp of the importance of a new worldview, and of the explosive anxiety and exhilaration to which it gave birth. ADDED MATERIAL ROSE LOVELL-SMITH How to cite Animals of Wonderland, Essay examples

File Sharing Systems Essay Example For Students

File Sharing Systems Essay Universit?t St. Gallen Hochschule f?r Wirtschafts- Rechts- und Sozialwissenschaften ITM / MCMWahlteil Neue Medien / MedienarchitekturProf. Dr. Beat SchmidFILE SHARING SYSTEMEP2PVon Philipp BrunnerHans GeiserRoman H?ggStefan KressBeat MeierOlivier SalaminAbgabetermin: 5. Dezember 2000InhaltsverzeichnisEinf?hrung Seite 31. Theoretische Grundlagen 31.1. Netzarchitekturen 31.1.1. Client Server 31.1.2. Peer to Peer 41.1.3. Verzeichnisserver 41.2. Netzwerkprotokolle / TCP/IP 41.2.1. Transmission Internet Protocoll 41.2.2. Internet Protocoll 51.2.3. TCP/IP ist das Internet 61.2.4. IP ? Adressierung 61.3. Proxyserver 72. Fallbeispiele 82.1. MP3 82.1.1. Allgemeine Aspekte 82.1.2. Technische Aspekte 82.1.3. Wirtschaftliche Aspekte 92.1.4. Konklusion / Extrapolation 92.2. Napster 102.2.1. Allgemeine Aspekte 102.2.2. Technische Aspekte 102.2.3. Wirtschaftliche Aspekte 112.2.4. Konklusion / Extrapolation 122.3. Gnutella 132.3.1. Allgemeine Aspekte 132.3.2. Technische Aspekte 132.3.3. Wirtschaftli che Aspekte 142.3.4. Konklusion / Extrapolation 142.4. Freenet 152.4.1. Allgemeine Aspekte 152.4.2. Technische Aspekte 152.4.3. Wirtschaftliche Aspekte 162.4.4. Konklusion / Extrapolation 162.5. Mojonation 172.5.1. Allgemeine Aspekte 172.5.2. Technische Aspekte 172.5.3. Wirtschaftliche Aspekte 182.5.4. Konklusion / Extrapolation 193. Neue Problematiken / Denkanst?sse 193.1. Staat 193.2. Juristik 203.3. Kriminalit?t / Cyber Terrorismus 203.4. Vom gl?sernen B?rger zum gl?sernen Kunden 204. Konklusion / Extrapolation 214.1. Ausblick: Groovenet 214.2. P2P Prognosen 214.3. Trendabsch?tzung 22Anhang ILiteraturverzeichnis IAbbildungsverzeichnis IURLs ICD ? Rom IEinf?hrung Die als weitgehend institutionalisiert geglaubten, auf Client ? Server ? Modellen basierenden Kommunikationsstrukturen des Internet unterziehen sich zurzeit einem rasanten Wandel, dessen Konsequenzen das Internet und seine Community wieder zu ihren Wurzeln archaischer wie auch basisdemokratischer Verst?ndigung f?hren k?nn te. Client ? Server ? Modelle, synonym f?r kostenintensive Infrastruktur, Wartung und Bedienung wie aber auch f?r leichte Kontrolle und somit problemlose Einbindung in bestehende Gesch?ftsmodelle der Old Economy, scheinen zurzeit vom Organismus Internet wie ein systemfremdes Bakterium abgestossen zu werden. Tats?chlich liess der als zentral zu wertende Bereich der Kommunikationsformen als Basis jedweder Verst?ndigung bisher stark Attribute wie Innovationskraft, wie Wandel und Dynamik vermissen. Innovative File ? Sharing ? Systeme wie namentlich Peer to Peer Modelle (P2P) beginnen zunehmend am althergebrachten Diktat der Client ? Server ?Systeme zu r?tteln, werden wom?glich diese Mauern innerhalb k?rzester Zeit zum Einsturz bringen. Begleitet vom Hauch des Illegalen, des Subversiven, haben sich diese Modelle mittels einiger Protagonisten dieser Entwicklung (Napster, Gnutella etc.) einen breiten Zuspruch der Internet Community erk?mpft. Peer ? gleichgestellt; ungleich der hierarchischen (und somit der Grundideologie des Internet quasi systemfremden) Ordnung der Client ? Server ? Systeme agieren bei der P2P Kommunikation alle teilnehmenden Rechner als Client wie auch als Server. Dieses relativ trivial anmutende Prinzip erm?glicht somit die effizente (effizienteste?!) Aufteilung aller technischen Ressourcen wie Speicherkapazit?t, Rechnerleistung und Bandbreite. Es erstaunt nicht, dass die Exponenten der Old Economy mit einer auf Tausch (sprich: geben und nehmen) basierenden Kommunikationsform M?he bekunden, zumal es noch nicht gelungen ist, dieses Konzept ungeachtet seines Erfolges in bestehende Business ? Modelle einbinden zu k?nnen. Die vorliegende Arbeit verfolgt die Zielsetzung, dem unkundigen Leser mittels eines deduktiven und ganzheitlichen Ansatzes ein Bild der aktuellen Kommunikationsformen des Internet zu vermitteln. Gem?ss dieser Motivation sollen in einem ersten Schritt die theoretischen Grundlagen f?r ein besseres Verst?ndnis der in einem zweiten Schritt folgenden Fallbeispiele geschaffen werden. Um dem angedeuteten ganzheitlichen Ansatz Rechnung zu tragen, werden in einem dritten Schritt im Sinne von Denkanst?ssen soziale, wirtschaftliche, juristische etc. Aspekte diskutiert. Die Arbeit m?ndet schliesslich in einer Konklusion, einer Beurteilung und m?glichen Extrapolation der Gegenwart seitens der Autoren. Es wurde bewusst auf eine intensive Illustrierung der Arbeit verzichtet, um eine h?chstm?gliche Informationsdichte und somit einen inhaltlich maximalen Mehrwert zugunsten des Lesers zu gew?hren. In Bezug auf eine detaillierte Illustrierung sei an dieser Stelle auf die der Arbeit im Sinne eines Anhangs beigelegten CD ? Rom verwiesen, welche nebst den zitierten Quellen eine umfangreiche Daten- und Programmsammlung beinhaltet. 1. Theoretische Grundlagen1.1. Netzarchitekturen 1.1.1. Client-Server Zu Beginn der Computer?ra war sowohl Rechenleistung als auch Speicherplatz stark beschr?nkt und sehr teuer. Gerade aber diese beiden Faktoren machten den Vorteil maschineller Informationsverarbeitung aus und deswegen wurden verschiedene Konzepte entwickelt, die vorhandenen Ressourcen m?glichst effizient zu nutzen. Man ging in der Regel von einer zentralen Rechenmaschine aus, welche sowohl die Berechnungen ausf?hrte als auch alle Informationen speicherte. Daneben existierten ?dumme? Terminals, welche auf diese Ressourcen zur?ckgreifen konnten. Aus dieser hierarchischen Struktur wurde die Bezeichnung des Client-Server-Modells abgeleitet, welche somit das ?klassische? Netzwerkmodel darstellt. 1.1.2. Peer-to-Peer Mit zunehmender Weiterentwicklung der Computer wurde es nun aber auch m?glich, die Terminals intelligenter werden zu lassen und schlussendlich ganz von ihren Servern zu l?sen. Daraus entstand der klassische Desktop-Computer, welcher als Einzelarbeitsplatzsystem dem Benutzer nun alle Vorteile der maschinellen Informationsverarbeitung direkt bieten konnte, so dass dieser nicht mehr darauf angewiesen war, eine Verbindung zu einem Server zu haben. F?r kleinere Arbeitsstrukturen war es aber sinnvoll, die einzelnen Desktops miteinander zu verbinden. Daraus leitete sich das Peer-to-Peer (P2P)-Mo dell ab. 1.1.3. Verzeichnisserver In der zunehmenden Informationsflut sowie einer enorm wachsenden Zahl von Peers wurde es aber immer schwieriger, alle spezifischen Informationen auf allen angeschlossenen Netzteilnehmern zu suchen. Die L?sung f?r dieses Problem fand sich in der Idee der Verzeichnisserver, welche ausschliesslich als ?Inhaltsverzeichnis? des grossen Netzverbundes fungierten. Diese drei Modelle dienen als Grundlage und k?nnen beschr?nkt beliebig skaliert werden. Auf der tiefsten Ebene befindet sich ein LAN (Local Area Network), welches i.d.R. Computer innerhalb eines Geb?udes oder Geb?udekomplexes miteinander verbindet. Die n?chst h?here Stufe ist das WAN (Wide Area Network), welches verschiedene lokale Netze zu einem grossen Ganzen verbindet. Schlussendlich findet sich das GAN (Global Area Network), wie es das Internet darstellt. 1.2. Netzwerkprotokolle / TCP/IP TCP/IP ist eine Gruppe von zwei unterschiedlichen Protokollen auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen des OSI-Referenzmodelles. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ist ein Protokoll der 4. Schicht (Transportschicht), IP (Internet Protocol) befindet sich in der 3. Schicht (Vermittlungsschicht). TCP/IP gew?hrleistet den Auf- und Abbau der Verbindung zwischen Sender und Empf?nger und sorgt f?r die korrekte Adressierung der Information und deren Aufteilung in einzelne Datenpakete. 1.2.1. Transmission Control Protocol TCP ist eines der Hauptprotokolle des Internet. Es vereinfacht solch hochsensible Aufgaben wie die ?bertragung von Dateien und entfernte Arbeitssitzungen. Die Arbeitsweise von TCP wird als zuverl?ssige ?bertragung bezeichnet. In dieser Hinsicht unterscheidet sich TCP von anderen Protokollen der Protokollfamilie, die als unzuverl?ssig gelten und keine Garantie ?bernehmen, dass die Daten in der gleichen Reihenfolge und dem gleichen Zustand ankommen, in der bzw. dem sie abgesandt wurden. Das TCP-System verl?sst sich auf eine virtuelle Verbindung, die zwischen dem anfragenden und dem Ziel-Rechner etabliert wird. Diese Verbindung wird durch einen dreiteiligen Prozess ge?ffnet, der oft auch als ?three-part-handshake? bezeichnet wird. In der Regel folgt der Prozess dem in Abbildung 4 gezeigten Muster. Nach ?ffnen der Verbindung k?nnen die Daten simultan in beide Richtungen reisen, was auch als Vollduplex-?bertragung bezeichnet wird. So k?nnen auch w?hrend einer Daten?bertragung (oder einer anderen entfernten Arbeitssitzung) eventuell auftretende Fehler an den anfragenden Rechner ?bertragen werden. TCP stellt umfangreiche Funktionen zur Fehler?berpr?fung zur Verf?gung. F?r jedes gesendete Datenpaket wird ein numerischer Wert generiert. Die zwei Rechner identifizieren jedes ?bertragene Datenpaket anhand dieses numerischen Wertes. F?r jedes erfolgreich ?bertragene Paket sendet der Empf?nger eine Nachricht an den Absender, dass die ?bertragung erfolgreich war. Im Gegensatz dazu k?nnen bei nicht erfolgreicher ?bertragung zwei Dinge passieren: Der anfragende Rechner erh?lt eine Fehlermeldung Der anfragende Rechner erh?lt nichts Nach Empfang einer Fehlermeldung werden die Daten erneut ?bertragen, ausser wenn es sich um einen schweren Fehler handelt. In diesem Fall wird die ?bertragung gew?hnlich unterbrochen. Ein typisches Beispiel f?r einen schweren Fehler ist z. B. ein Zusammenbrechen der Verbindung. Ganz ?hnlich dazu werden die Daten ebenfalls erneut ?bertragen, wenn innerhalb eines bestimmten Zeitraums keine Best?tigung empfangen wird. Dieser Prozess wird solange wiederholt, bis die ?bertragung oder die entfernte Arbeitssitzung abgeschlossen ist. 1.2.2. Internet Protocol IP geh?rt zur Netzwerkschicht und ist f?r die ?bertragung von Datenpaketen f?r alle Protokolle der TCP/IP-Protokollfamilie verantwortlich. IP stellt damit das Herz dieses unglaublichen Prozesses dar, mit dem Daten das Internet durchqueren. Abbildung 5 zeigt ein kleines Modell eines IP-Datagramms, das diesen Prozess erkl?rt. Wie in der Abbildung gezeigt, besteht ein IP-Datagramm aus mehreren Teilen. Der erste Teil, der Reader (Kopfzeile), besteht aus verschiedenen Elementen, u.a. den IP-Adressen des Absenders und des Empf?ngers. Zusammen formen diese Elemente einen kompletten Reader. Der restliche Teil des Datagramms enth?lt die jeweils zu versendenden Daten. Das erstaunliche am Internet Protocol ist folgendes: Datagramme k?nnen w?hrend ihrer Reise fragmentiert und sp?ter beim Empf?nger wieder zusammengesetzt werden (auch wenn sie nicht in der gleichen Reihenfolge ankommen, in der sie abgesandt wurden). Ein IP-Datagramm enth?lt noch weitere Informationen, z.B. die Identit?t des gerade benutzten Protokolls, eine Reader-Pr?fsumme und eine Time-to-Live-Spezifikation. Diese Spezifikation ist ein numerischer Wert. W?hrend das Datagramm durch das Internet reist, wird dieser numerische Wert st?ndig vermindert. Wenn er schliesslich null erreicht, wird das Datagramm verworfen. Viele Paket-Typen haben Time-to-Live-Limitationen. Einige Netzwerk-Utilities (wie Traceroute) benutzen das Time-to-Live-Feld als eine Markierung f?r Diagnose-Routinen. Zusammenfassend kann die Funktion von IP auf folgendes reduziert werden: Es dient der ?bertragung von Datenpaketen ?ber das Internet. 1.2.3. TCP/IP ist das Internet Inzwischen sollte es offensichtlich sein, dass TCP/IP im Grunde genommen das Internet selbst umfasst. Es ist eine komplexe Sammlung von Protokollen, viele davon f?r den Benutzer unsichtbar. Auf den meisten Internet-Servern k?nnen alle der folgenden Netzwerkprotokolle laufen: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)In der Anwendungsebene gelten die folgenden Protokolle als Standard: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet Protocol (Telnet) Gopher Protocol Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)Dies ist nur eine Handvoll der Protokolle, die im Internet laufen. Tats?chlich gibt es Hunderte dieser Protokolle. Mehr als die H?lfte der Implementierungen der wichtigsten Protokolle hatten schon ein oder mehrere Sicherheitsl?cher. Folgender Punkt ist wesentlich: Das Internet wurde als ein System mit vielfachen Kommunikationswegen entwickelt. Jedes Protokoll stellt einen dieser Wege dar. An sich gibt es also hunderte von Wegen, um Daten ?ber das Internet zu bewegen. 1.2.4. IP-Adressierung Grunds?tzlich werden beim Internet Protocol nur Computer (Hosts) adressiert. M?glicherweise mag das Datenpaket zwar weitere Angaben, wie z. B. den Adressaten einer E-Mail, enthalten das interessiert die IP-Schicht jedoch nicht. Diese ist nur daf?r zust?ndig, Datenpakete von einer Maschine im Netz zu einer anderen zu schaffen. Normalerweise wird die Zielmaschine das Paket dann genauer untersuchen, um herausfinden, was im einzelnen zu tun ist (und die Nutzdaten z. B. als Nachricht in der Mailbox eines bestimmten Benutzers abzulegen). Eine Analogie: Wenn Sie die zentrale Telefonnummer einer grossen Firma w?hlen, dann erreichen Sie gew?hnlich nicht direkt die Person, mit der Sie sprechen wollen. Das Gespr?ch kann aber von der Gegenstelle leicht an die korrekte Nebenstelle weitervermittelt werden. Wichtig ist, dass Sie unter einer zentralen Nummer, wenn auch indirekt, jeden Mitarbeiter erreichen k?nnen. Jeder einzelne Host im Internet (man sch?tzt ?brigens, dass Ende 1996 ?ber 10 Millionen Computer online waren) erh?lt als IP-Adresse einen eindeutigen Zahlenwert, sozusagen seine Hausnummer in der Internet-Strasse. Diese Nummer l?sst sich entweder als eine etwas l?ngliche 32-Bit-Zahl ausdr?cken, oder, f?r uns Normalsterbliche etwas ?bersichtlicher, als vier separate Werte zwischen 0 und 255 (also vier Byte a acht Bit, diese Einheit wird im Internet manchmal auch als Oktett bezeichnet). Diese zweite Schreibweise hat sich im Net durchgesetzt, so dass eine IP-Adresse etwa so aussehen kann: 194.23.45.127. Die vier Byte werden einfach durch Punkte voneinander getrennt. (Im IP-Header taucht die Adresse nat?rlich als Folge von 32 Bit auf). Wenn nun Host A ein Paket an Host B mit der Adresse 194.23.45.127 senden will, dann reicht es vollkommen aus, einen IP-Header mit dieser Adressangabe zu versehen und ihn mitsamt den Nutzdaten ins Netz zu entlassen. Da jeder Rechner im Netz seine eigene, u nverwechselbare Hausnummer hat, kann er von jeder anderen Maschine im Netz adressiert werden. Und durch das automatische Routing findet das Paket quasi selbstst?ndig seinen Weg und kommt ordnungsgem?ss bei Host 194.23.45.127 an (meistens). Nat?rlich gibt es dabei noch einige Feinheiten zu beachten, aber im Grossen und Ganzen ist dieses Verfahren wirklich so genial einfach. Zwei Fragen dr?ngen sich nun aber sofort auf: Erstens, wer vergibt denn diese eindeutigen IP-Adressen, wenn es im Netz angeblich keine zentrale Autorit?t gibt? Und zweitens: Warum sieht man diese Ziffernfolgen so gut wie nie als Internet-Adressen, sondern meist Klartextnamen wie http://www.microsoft.com oder ?Zuerst die Vergabe der Adressen: Diese wird geregelt durch die sogenannten Network Information Center (NIC). Bis vor wenigen Jahren gab es nur das NIC schlechthin in den USA. Mit der steigenden Verbreitung des Internet und der explosionsartigen Zunahme der Hosts wurde es jedoch erforderlich, diese Aufgabe auf mehrere Schultern zu verteilen. Daher wurden in den wichtigsten L?ndern Non-Profit-Organisationen damit beauftragt, die Host-Registrierung und Adressvergabe durchzuf?hren oder wenigstens zu kontrollieren. Diese erhalten einen gr?sseren Block von IP-Adressen, die sie nach eigenem Gutd?nken an lokale Interessenten verteilen. In der Schweiz ist daf?r Switch in Z?rich zust?ndig. Dieses ist eine Vereinigung der wichtigsten Internet-Provider. Die Registrierung dort ist kostenpflichtig, der Betrag ist allerdings relativ niedrig. Mit einer 32-Bit-Adresse lassen sich theoretisch ?ber 4 Milliarden Hosts ansprechen, das scheint vorderhand eine ausreichend grosse Zahl zu sein. Eine genauere Betrachtung der Struktur von IP-Adressen zeigt allerdings, dass es mit der Theorie (wie ?blich) nicht allzuweit her ist. Eine Internet Adresse wird n?mlich einer von f?nf Gruppen zugeordnet, die von A bis E klassifiziert sind (die Gruppen D und E werden zurzeit allerdings nicht allgemein verwendet). Die Gruppen A bis C sind bitweise je nach Netzwerk ? Gr?sse definiert. Dazu wird die Tatsache herangezogen, dass fast alle Hosts Bestandteil eines eigenst?ndigen Subnetzes im Internet sind. Die 32 Bit der Adresse verteilen sich f?r die drei Gruppen wie folgt: ? Die Gruppe A beschreibt sehr umfangreiche Netze: 0aaaaaaa hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh? Gruppe B ist f?r mittelgrosse Netze gedacht: 10bbbbbb bbbbbbbb hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh ? w?hrend Gruppe C kleine Netze abdeckt: 110CCCCC cccccccc cccccccc hhhhhhhh Dieses Bit-Kauderwelsch heisst im Klartext folgendes: Ein bestimmtes Teil ? Netzwerk in Gruppe A wird durch 7 Bit (aaaaaaa) identifiziert (das h?chstwertige Bit im ersten Byte ist in diesem Fall grunds?tzlich gleich 0). Innerhalb eines solchen Netzwerks sind maximal 24 Bit (hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh) f?r die Host-Numerierung reserviert. Mit anderen Worten: Es kann weltweit maximal nur 128 (wegen der 7 Bit) grosse Netzwerke geben, die allerdings jeweils bis zu 16777216 separate Hosts enthalten k?nnten. Gruppe-A-Netze bleiben daher sehr grossen Organisationen vorbehalten; sie sind leicht daran zu erkennen, dass der erste der vier Adresswerte kleiner als 128 ist. Da allerdings nicht jedes dieser Netze tats?chlich die m?glichen ?ber 16 Millionen Hosts umfasst, werden sehr viele m?gliche Adressen verschwendet. Gruppe-B-Adressen sind ?hnlich aufgebaut, allerdings sind hier 14 Bit (bbbbbb bbbbbbbb) f?r das Netzwerk (die obersten beiden Bit sind immer 10) und 16 Bit (hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh) f?r den Host reserviert. Damit k?nnen also bis zu 16384 Netze mit jeweils maximal 65536 Computern adressiert werden. Diese mittlere Gr?sse wird von vielen gr?sseren Firmen genutzt. Das erste Byte der Adresse liegt bei Gruppe-B-Adressen immer zwischen 128 und 191. Auch hier werden nat?rlich nicht belegte HostAdressen verschwendet. Die Gruppe C schliesslich erm?glicht bis zu 2097152 kleine Netze (21-Bit-Netzadresse, immer mit 110 beginnend) mit jeweils bis zu 256 Rechnern (8 Bit f?r den Host). Gruppe-C-Netze erkennt man am Wert 192 bis 223 im ersten Byte. Alle Werte dar?ber sind entweder Gruppe ? D oder ?E ? Netze, auf die ich hier nicht weiter eingehe. Der Grund f?r diese merkw?rdige Aufteilung in Teilnetze ist die h?here Effizienz des IP-Routings: Die Router m?ssen nicht die Wege zu allen Hosts eines Netzes in ihren Tabellen speichern; es reicht vollkommen aus, nur die Route bis zum betreffenden Subnetz zu vermerken. Das Routing zum korrekten Host kann dann dort lokal erledigt werden. Dieser Vorteil wird heutzutage durch die schon angesprochene Verschwendung ungenutzter Host-Nummern jedoch wieder wettgemacht; sp?testens zur Jahrtausendwende ist leider der Punkt erreicht, an dem die IP-Adressen knapp werden. Zu den Zeiten, als diese Strukturen ersonnen wurden, konnte sich eben niemand vorstellen, dass das Netz einmal so umfangreich werden w?rde. Die IETF versucht allerdings seit geraumer Zeit, diesem Problem mittels eines erweiterten Schemas zur IP-Adressierung beizukommen. Dies ist aber leichter gesagt als getan, denn die 32-Bit-IP Adressen sind so eng mit den TCP/IP ? Protokollen verkn?pft, dass es gar nicht so einfach ist, ein v erbessertes Verfahren zu finden, das dennoch zum jetzigen Standard r?ckw?rtskompatibel bleibt. 1.3. Proxyserver Ein Proxyserver ist zur Hauptsache ein Sicherheitswerkzeug. Er steht an der Schnittstelle eines lokalen PCs, bzw. eines lokalen Netzes und ?berwacht permanent den Datenfluss. Daraus entstehen nun verschiedenste M?glichkeiten, den Zugang zum Internet zu optimieren, bzw. anonymisieren. Zwischenspeichern h?ufig nachgefragter Inhalte Firewall Filterung b?sartiger Inhalte Zugangsbeschr?nkungen f?r Adressbereiche, bzw. Ports Verbergen eines PC oder ganzer Netze vor dem InternetInsbesondere die Anonymisierungsfunktion wird in den vorgestellten Filesharing Programmen durch sogenannte ?Transparente Proxies? benutzt. Dies bedeutet f?r den Benutzer folgendes:Aus der Struktur eines TCP/IP ? Netzes folgt, dass ein solcher Proxy einerseits den lokalen Rechner ?ber TCP/IP erreichen k?nnen muss und dies ist an einem Einzelarbeitsplatz die lokale Standardadresse 127.0.0.1. Nach aussen (remote) erh?lt der Proxy die Adresse, welche ihm vom ISP (Internet Service Provider) dynamisch zugewiesen wurde. Will man nun die Spur zur?ckverfolgen, auf welcher Route ein Datenpaket an seinen Speicherort gelangt ist, erreicht man irgendeinmal den entsprechenden Proxy. Nach aussen hin ist er derjenige, welcher das Datenpaket abgesandt hat und das ganze lokale Netz dahinter ist vom Rest der Welt abgeschirmt. Transparent nennt man den Proxy, da andere Anfragen (wie z.B. http requests) durch den Proxy hindurchgelassen werden und eine direkte Kommunikation auf diesem Weg nicht verunm?glicht wird. Personal Experience Argumentative Essay2.3.2. Technische AspekteBenutzung Der Kern der Gnutella ? Technologie besteht aus dem sogenannten Gnutella ? Client, eine Software, welche einerseits als Suchmaschine wie aber auch als Server der angebotenen Dateien agiert.. Gnutella grenzt sich nun gegen?ber anderen P2P Modellen dadurch ab, dass kein eigentlicher Server existiert. Die Verbindung mit dem eigentlichen Dienst erfordert als weiteres zus?tzliches Element nur noch die Kenntnis der IP ? Nummer eines weiteren Gnutella Users, welche auf speziellen Servern zur Verf?gung steht. Der eigentliche Suchprozess ist sogenannt rekursiv gestaltet. Die Anfrage des Users gelangt zu seinem Verbindungspartner, welche seine Datenbest?nde auf die gew?nschte Datei hin untersucht. Im Falle eines negativen Suchergebnisses wird die Anfrage nach einem exponentiellen Prinzip auf weitere User ausgedehnt, bis schliesslich ein m?gliche Quelle der gew?nschten Information identifiziert ist. Dies bedingt, das zwischenzeitlich eine hohe Anzahl von Usern in die Suche nach der gew?nschten Information involviert ist. Der eigentliche Datentransfer wird abschliessend direkt, d.h. ohne Umwege ?ber Dritte, mittels des Gnutella ? Clients durchgef?hrt. Daten Infolge Ermangelung eines eigentlichen zentralen Servers befinden sich die vorhandenen Daten innerhalb der Systeme der Gnutella ? User. Dies hat implizit zur Folge, dass als weiteres Element zur Teilnahme an der Gnutella Community die Kenntnis der IP ? Nummer zumindest eines weiteren Gnutella ? Users notwendig ist. Diese IP ? Nummern sind auf spezifischen Servern, in Newsgroups oder durch IRC in Erfahrung zu bringen. Der Gnutella User bestimmt eigenverantwortlich welche seiner Daten er Drittpersonen zug?nglich machen will. Das eigentliche Gnutella ? Net wird nur f?r den Suchprozess benutzt, der Datentransfer wird ?ber das http ? Protokoll abgewickelt. W?rde der Datentransfer beispielsweise ?ber die selben Stationen laufen wie der vorgelagerte Suchprozess, so h?tte dies eine massive Einschr?nkung der Bandbreite aller beteiligten User zur Folge. Trotzdem jedoch absorbiert Gnutella hohe Kapazit?ten der eigenen Bandbreite. Werden Suchanfragen ?ber das Netz geleitet oder Dateien vom eigenen System downgeloadet, so steht nur noch ein relativer kleiner Teil der Bandbreite f?r eigene Aktivit?ten zur Verf?gung, wobei auch Informationspakete, welche durch Gnutella selbst verschickt werden, abgebremst werden. Um der Gefahr eines Systemzusammenbruchs zu begegnen, werden Datenpakete, die infolge ?berlastung eines Systems nicht mehr aufgenommen werden k?nnen, fallengelassen (?dropped?). Falls bei der Verbindung mit einem anderen User sehr viele Datenpakete fallengelassen werden und somit der Datentransfer erschwert wie auch das Netz ?berlastet wird, so muss die bestehende Verbindung abgebrochen und eine neue aufgebaut werden. Sicherheit / Anonymit?t Der Schutz der eigenen Person ist w?hrend der Informationssuche nahezu perfekt, da durch das System der rekursiven Suche der Anfang des Suchprozesses respektive die Identit?t des Suchenden quasi unidentifizierbar wird. Beim anschliessenden Download ?ber das http ? Protokoll wird diese Anonymit?t jedoch aufgehoben, der Partner des stattfindenden Datentransfers wird bestimmbar. Analog wird auch beim zum Suchprozess gegengerichteten Angebotsprozess von eigenen Daten die IP ? Adresse des pers?nlichen Systems der Allgemeinheit offenbart. 2.3.3. Wirtschaftliche AspekteGnutella pr?sentiert sich in seiner Ideologie als absolut nicht gewinnorientiertes Unternehmen, die Einbettung oder Entwicklung von profitbringenden Gesch?ftsmodellen ist nicht intendiert. Vielmehr hat sich Gnutella der Open Source Idee verpflichtet, was zu einer weiten Verbreitung von Open Source Clients wie auch Spezifikationen des Gnutella ? Protokolls gef?hrt hat und somit eine kommerzielle Nutzung dieses Dienstes praktisch verunm?glicht. Einzig die Firma GoneSilent.com ist gegenw?rtig bem?ht, durch die Entwicklung auf Gnutella basierender, system?bergreifender Search ? Engine ? Software eine kommerzielle Nutzung des Gnutella Projekts zu realisieren. 2.3.4. Konklusion / ExtrapolationSt?rken Die drei zentralen Erfolgsfaktoren von Gnutella bestehen aus der de facto Unzerst?rbarkeit des Systems, aus der schnellen Informationssuche und dem hohen Grad an gew?hrter Anonymit?t. Schw?chen Aus der technischen Perspektive ist haupts?chlich der Kapazit?tsverlust eigener Bandbreite zu bedauern, der durch die Benutzung von Gnutella entsteht, wie aber auch unter dem Aspekt der Sicherheit der Verlust der eigenen Anonymit?t beim Downloadprozess. Im Gegensatz zu Systemen wie Mojonation verf?gt Gnutella ?ber keine Mechanismen um der Freerider Problematik effizient begegnen zu k?nnen, was weiter ein klarer Nachteil gegen?ber konkurrierenden Technologien ist. Schlussbetrachtung Trotz des grossen aktuellen Erfolges der Gnutella Software sieht sich diese Technologie einer ungewissen Zukunft gegen?ber. Wie jede auf P2P Architekturen beruhende Kommunikation ohne wirksame Mechanismen gegen Freeriding ist Gnutella stark abh?ngig von positiven Netzwerkeffekten, respektive der Gr?sse seiner Community. Sollte die Benutzerzahl infolge technischer Schw?chen (namentlich die Absorbierung von Bandbreitenkapazit?t) oder Abwandern zu konkurrierenden Systemen (beispielsweise Mojonation, Groovenet) unter die kritische Masse fallen, so w?re somit das Schicksal von Gnutella besiegelt. Um diesen Gefahren entgegenzuwirken und die bestehenden M?ngel der Gnutella Software zu beheben hat sich mittlerweile eine Gruppe um den 18 j?hrigen Studenten Sebastian Lambla gebildet, welche das sogenannte ?Next Generation Protocol? (oder auch ?General Purpose Localization Protocol = gPulp?) entwickeln will. Ziel dieses Projekts sind haupts?chlich Verbesserungen in den Bereichen Anonymit?t, Geheimhaltung und Routing. Da die Ergebnisse des Projekts jedoch vom Konsens mit der breiten Gnutella Community getragen werden sollen, wird der Erfolgsfaktor Zeit hier stark vernachl?ssigt. Die Vision besteht aus einem Protokoll, welches von allen Gnutella ? Clients verwendet wird. Ansonsten w?re eine Zersplitterung der Gnutella Community in unz?hlige Teilfragmente, die sich unterschiedlicher Gnutella ? Clients bedienen, vorstellbar. 2.4. Freenet / www.freenetproject.org 2.4.1. Allgemeine AspekteFacts ; Figures Das urspr?ngliche Design von Freenet wurde von Ian Clarke als Abschlussprojekt in KI und Computerwissenschaft an der Universit?t Edinburgh erstellt. Im Juni 1999 wurde das Projekt beendet und auf dem Internet implementiert. Ian Clarke ist nach wie vor der Projektmanager und wird von Zeit zu Zeit von freiwilligen Entwicklern unterst?tzt. Philosophie der Firma / Software Freenet ist ein verteiltes Informationsspeichersystem, welches vor allem den Userbed?rfnissen in den Bereichen Privacy und Verf?gbarkeit Rechnung tragen soll. Das System arbeitet als ortsunabh?ngiges Dateisystem ?ber viele an das Internet angeschlossene Rechner und erlaubt Dateien anonym zu speichern und abzurufen. Die f?nf Hauptziele des Architekturdesigns sind:? Anonymit?t f?r Produzenten und Konsumenten von Information? Sicherstellung, dass der Weg, auf welchem Informationen gespeichert wurden, nicht festgestellt werden kann ? Deniability? Widerstandsf?higkeit gegen?ber Dritten, welche versuchen, das Abrufen von Information zu verhindern? Effiziente dynamische Speicherung und Informationsrouting? Dezentralisierung aller NetzwerkfunktionenDas System wurde entwickelt um adaptiv auf Benutzerbed?rfnisse reagieren zu k?nnen und transparent Dateien zu verschieben, zu replizieren und zu l?schen, um einen effizienten Dienst anbieten zu k?nnen, welcher ohne Suchmaschinen oder zentrale Index-Server auskommt. Es ist nicht beabsichtigt, permanente Speicherung zu garantieren, obwohl gehofft wird, dass gen?gend ?Knoten? teilnehmen, um gen?gend Speicherkapazit?t zur Verf?gung zu stellen. Zus?tzlich arbeitet das System auf dem Application-Layer und nimmt an, dass eine sicherer Transport-Layer existiert, obw ohl es damit nicht verkn?pft ist. Es will nicht Anonymit?t f?r ein generelles Netzwerk, sondern f?r die Freenet Dateioperationen. 2.4.2. Technische AspekteBenutzung Freenet wird als File heruntergeladen und ben?tigt zus?tzlich ein Java Runtime Environment JRE 1.1 oder h?her. Die Installation erfolgt rasch und problemlos ? der Benutzer kann die Konfiguration des Proxy ? Servers mit den Standardeinstellungen ?bernehmen. Die Bedienung f?llt relativ einfach aus: ein File von der Festplatte wird ausgew?hlt und mit einer zus?tzlichen Beschreibung versehen. Ein Klick auf den Button ?Insert? sendet das File nun zun?chst an den lokalen Freenet ? Knoten, wo das File ins Netz gesandt wird. Der Abschluss des Speicherns meldet dem Benutzer nun noch, unter welchem definitiven Schl?ssel sein File abgelegt ist. Das Herunterladen desselben Files gestaltet sich so, dass der Benutzer den entsprechenden Schl?ssel eingibt und eine Anfrage startet. Das System sucht nun selbst?ndig, wo dieses File abgelegt wurde und liefert es zur?ck. Daten Freenet ist als Peer ? to ? Peer Netzwerk implementiert, mit Knoten, welche einander gegenseitig abfragen um Daten zu speichern und abzurufen, welche mit ortsunabh?ngigen Schl?sseln gespeichert sind. Jeder Knoten unterh?lt seine eigenes Dateisystem, welches dem Netzwerk Schreiben und Lesen erm?glicht, sowie als dynamische Routing-Tabelle mit den Adressen und Schl?sseln anderer Knoten agiert. Es ist beabsichtigt dass die meisten Benutzer des Systems Knoten betreiben um einerseits Sicherheit gegen unbeabsichtigtes Benutzen eines b?sartigen fremden Knotens zu garantieren, wie auch die Speicherkapazit?t des Netzes als Ganzes zu erh?hen. Das System kann als kooperatives verteiltes Dateisystem betrachtet werden, welches als ortsunabh?ngiger und transparenter Tr?ger der Replizierung arbeitet. Genau wie Systeme wie z.B. distributed.net, welches Benutzern freie CPU-Kapazit?t vermittelt, erm?glicht Freenet den Usern freien Speicherplatz zu vermitteln. Im Gegensatz zu distributed.net, welches die CPU-Kapazit?t f?r sich selber nutzt, stellt Freenet den Speicherplatz anderen Usern sozusagen als Harddiskerweiterung zur Verf?gung. Das Basismodel behandelt Dateianfragen so, dass es sie von Knoten zu Knoten weitergibt, wobei jeder Knoten selbstst?ndig entscheidet, wohin er die Anfrage weiterleitet (Dies ?ndert mit jeder Anfrage). Knoten kennen nur ihre unmittelbaren Nachbarn im ganzen Datenfluss. Jeder Anfrage wird ein ?hops-to-live?-Z?hler mitgegeben welcher bei jedem Knoten dekrementiert wird, um Endlosschleifen zu verhindern. Jeder Anfrage ist auch ein Identifier zugeordnet, so dass Knoten eine Anfrage abweisen k?nnen, sofern sie ihn schon einmal passiert hatte. Wenn dies geschieht, w?hlt der letzte Knoten einfach einen anderen Knoten aus, um die Anfrage weiterzuleiten. Dieser Prozess setzt sich fort, bis entweder die Anfrage befriedigt wurde, oder dann das ?hops-to-live?-Limit erreicht wurde. Das Resultat wird dann entlang der ganzen Kette zur?ckgesendet. Kein Knoten ist privilegiert, somit existiert auch keine Hierarchie oder eine Achillesferse. Dem Netzwerk beizutreten heisst lediglich, einen oder mehrere Knoten zu lokalisieren und dann mit diesem Kontakt aufzunehmen. Files k?nnen nicht ge?ndert werden, trotzdem ist die Updatef?higkeit als ein Entwicklungsziel vorgesehen. Zus?tzlich ist der Namespace gegenw?rtig flach ? eine Erweiterung hat hohe Priorit?t in der Entwicklung. 2.4.3. Wirtschaftliche AspekteDas Freenet-Projekt ist von der Funktionsweise ?hnlich aufgebaut wie Napster, jedoch mit dem Unterschied, dass jegliche Arten von Dateitypen gespeichert werden k?nnen. Das Internet soll sozusagen als ?ffentliche Festplattenerweiterung fungieren. Dieses Prinzip findet sich auf einer philosophisch weniger weit entwickelten, jedoch f?r Benutzer einfacher zu bedienenden Ebene bereits als Anwendung wieder (z.B. Myfiles.de, wo gratis bis zu 300MB Speicherplatz angeboten und gespeicherte Information auch quasi?ffentlich zur Verf?gung gestellt werden kann). Freenet befindet sich jedoch noch sehr stark in einem Entwicklungsprozess, welcher aber fast ausschliesslich von seinem Gr?nder gef?hrt wird, und wird deshalb in der aktuell vorliegenden Version kaum Zuspruch durch eine breite Benutzerschicht finden, da die Bedienung noch recht umst?ndlich ist und auch keine brauchbaren Suchmechanismen existieren. Des weiteren ist das System nicht f?r dauerhafte Daten konzipiert, so dass eine Speicherung dem Aussenden einer Sonde ins Weltall gleichkommt; Ziel ist die Hoffnung, eines Tages ans Ziel zu kommen. Aus diesen Gr?nden ? kleiner Entwicklerkreis, keine brauchbare Benutzerschnittstelle, keine effiziente Suche m?glich ? erscheint eine wirtschaftliche Nutzung von Freenet ?usserst fraglich. Gewisse Teilaspekte und Organisationsprinzipien d?rften aber dennoch f?r andere Architekturen weiterentwickelt werden. 2.4.4. Konklusion / ExtrapolationSt?rken Die Strukturen des Freenet zeichnen sich analog denjenigen ?hnlicher Dienste durch ihre quasi Unzerst?rbarkeit aus. Als weitaus zentralere St?rke kann jedoch die Java ? Basis genannt werden, welche einen Einsatz auf allen Arten von Plattformen erm?glicht und somit einen extrem vielseitigen Einsatz erm?glicht, was ein klarer Erfolgsfaktor zuk?nftiger Kommunikationstechnologien darstellt. Des weiteren handelt es sich bei Freenet um ein erfreulich simples Prinzip, welches jedermann kostenlos zur Verf?gung steht und unabh?ngig eingesetzt werden kann. Schw?chen Die durch den stark limitierten Entwicklerkreis bedingte langsame Entwicklung des Freenet ist hier sehr skeptisch zu beurteilen, da speziell im Internetbereich Geschwindigkeit als wesentlicher Erfolgsfaktor gewertet werden kann. Die Erschliessung weiter Benutzerkreise, das Erreichen einer kritischen Masse von Usern kann bei den gegenw?rtig bestehenden Defiziten, bei den weitgehend unstrukturierten Suchmaschinen, welche treffend den gesamten Entwicklungsstand des Projekts widerspiegeln (Alpha Phase), als noch weit entfernt eingeordnet werden. Schlussbetrachtung Das Freenet-Projekt befindet sich noch sehr in der Alpha-Phase (reine Entwicklungsstufe). Der Vergleich mit ?hnlich aufgebauten Netzen (z.B. Mojonation) zeigt, dass es viele andere Projekte gibt, welche seit Beginn 1999 entstanden und zum heutigen Zeitpunkt viel weiter entwickelt sind. Das Prinzip eines lokalen Proxy-Servers zur Knotenbildung ist nicht nur bei Freenet die Grundlage, und damit zeigt es einzig eine weitere technische Variante auf, welche sich irgendwo zwischen Mojonation und Napster bewegt. Um eine tragende Rolle in der Entwicklung zuk?nftiger Systeme spielen zu k?nnen, m?sste Freenet zum heutigen Zeitpunkt viel st?rker verbreitet sein, bzw. sich bereits in der Beta-Phase befinden. Aus diesem Grund werden wohl h?chstens technische Aspekte aus dem Bereich Benutzerschutz in bestehende Projekte einfliessen, oder das ganze Projekt in ein bestehendes integriert. 2.5. Mojonation / www.mojonation.net2.5.1. Allgemeine AspekteFacts ; Figures Mojonation wird produziert, respektive entwickelt durch die Firma AZI (Autonomous Zone Industries), welche eine hundertprozentige Tochterunternehmung der Evil Geniuses for a better Tomorrow Inc. darstellt. Der Hauptsitz der Evil Geniuses befindet sich in Mountain View / CA / USA. Als Gr?nder und CEO der Firma AZI fungiert Jim McCoy, welcher vor seiner T?tigkeit bei AZI w?hrend 14 Jahren bei Large ? Scale ? Internet ? Services operativ t?tig war. McCoys eigene Gr?ndermentalit?t wiederspiegelt sich weiter in seinen nebenamtlichen T?tigkeiten bei Start Ups wie Yahoo, Four11, Communities.com und IO.com. Nebst diesen kommerziell orientierten T?tigkeiten zeichnete er sich verantwortlich f?r die universit?ren Information Services der Texas Austin University sowie der Northwestern University. Philosophie der Firma / der Software Der in allen File ? Sharing ? Systemen grunds?tzlich intendierte Gedanke des Tausches, des Leistungs- Gegenleistungs ? Prinzips, wird durch Mojonation reell. Der allgemeinen Free ? Rider ? Problematik, dem allgegenw?rtig parasit?ren Verhalten einer Mehrzahl der Internet User wird durch die Schaffung einer virtuellen W?hrung, des Mojos, begegnet. Mojos k?nnen einerseits durch die Einbringung von Texten, Filmen oder anderem digitalen Material (in der Regel wohl zweifelhaften Ursprungs unter dem Aspekt der Urheberrechte) wie auch durch die zur Verf?gungstellung von Ressourcen, namentlich Rechnerkapazit?t, Bandbreite oder Speicherplatz erworben und anschliessend in der Mojonation ? World wieder ausgegeben werden. Interessant und nicht zuletzt auch lukrativ erscheint dies speziell unter dem Aspekt der Konvertierbarkeit digitaler in reelle W?hrung, ein Bereich, der bereits diverse faszinierende Entwicklungen hervorgebracht hat . Innerhalb der Mojonation wird somit jegliches Free ? Riding ausgeschlossen; der Grundgedanke des Tausches wird erzwungen und vollzogen. Ein sogenannter Overload des Systems, die Situation, in der mehr Ressourcen beansprucht als zur Verf?gung gestellt werden, kann somit vermieden werden. Im Gegensatz zu Napster wird somit der nutzenoptimierende User an einer Teilung seiner eigenen Ressourcen interessiert sein, und nicht seinen Nutzen dadurch optimieren k?nnen, indem er sich als reiner Freerider profiliert. 2.5.2. Technische AspekteBenutzung Der Kern von Mojonation konstituiert sich aus einer einem Broker ? Software ? Applet, welches von Interessierten kostenlos heruntergeladen werden kann . Nach erfolgtem Download und Installation wirkt der Broker als stiller Client, welcher im Hintergrund des Systems permanent auf Abruf ist. Wird er mittels Aufruf durch den Browser aktiviert, kann via des erscheinenden Interface auf die Mojonation Ressourcen zugegriffen werden. Daten / Verzeichnisse Durch den Broker wird dem User der Zugang zu einer (wie im Internet ?blich) un?berblickbaren Anzahl an MP3 ? Files, Video Clips, Share- und Freeware Programmen etc. bis hin zu kompletten Websites er?ffnet. Die jeweiligen Files sind durch eine spezifische URL ? Kennung versehen, so dass sie durch den Broker entsprechend identifiziert, gesucht und als m?gliche Suchergebnisse ausgegeben werden k?nnen; hierbei ist anzumerken, dass der Broker nicht die eigentliche interne Search Engine darstellt, sondern diese lediglich kontaktiert und ihre Ergebnisse visuell auswertet. Vor allem die Perspektive der internen Organisation der Daten ist bei Mojonation ?usserst bemerkenswert, wiederspiegelt sie doch in treffender Weise die sicherlich nicht unbegr?ndeten paranoiden Vorstellungen vieler Softwareentwickler. Jedwedes ?ber Mojonation editierte File wird in einer ersten Phase in mehrere Teile aufgebrochen, um die somit entstandenen Fragmente in einer zweiten Phase erneut in weitere acht St?ck zu unterteilen. Die nun entstandenen Blocks werden codiert und zur Gew?hrleistung der Zuverl?ssigkeit doppelt abgelegt, wobei der Aufenthaltsort der einzelnen Blocks nur mittels des Brokers durch eine eigens erstellt Sharemap ausfindig gemacht werden kann. Um ein Missbrauch durch eine Manipulation der Sharemaps zu verhindern, werden auch diese fragmentiert und codiert. Die Teilfragmente der Sharemaps werden in der Mojonation Terminologie als Dinoden bezeichnet; sie stellen die eigentliche Kerninformation dar, ohne welche eine Reproduzierung der vollst?ndigen Sharemaps nicht m?glich ist. Dinoden ? Referenzen erscheinen im Mojonation Interface in der Gestalt von MojoIDs (lesbare URLs). Somit kann vor dem eigentlichen Download nicht zwischen Mojonation Files und anderen Files differenziert werden. Eine m?glichst effiziente Verteilung der Daten auf bestehende Speicherkapazit?ten wird durch ein eigentliches Marktprinzip gew?hrleistet. Durch Zuhilfenahme dieses Prinzips k?nnen ?berm?ssige Zugriffe auf die Systeme einzelner User vermieden und somit die Risiken von Stauungen oder Systemzusammenbr?chen eliminiert werden. Sicherheit / Anonymit?t Die dezentrale Architektur von Mojonation garantiert den jeweiligen Usern ein Maximum nicht nur an Sicherheit im Hinblick auf ihre Datenbest?nde, sondern auch an Anonymit?t im Hinblick auf die eigene Person. Einmal publizierte Daten k?nnen infolge ihrer extrem vielf?ltigen Verteilung und Codierung weder gel?scht noch kontrolliert werden. Diese Tatsache mag auf den ersten Blick durchaus faszinierend wirken, wirft bei einer vertiefteren Betrachtung doch vor allem schwerwiegende Fragen im Bereich der Internet ? Kriminalit?t auf. Seit Bestehen des Internets z?hlten zu den Protagonisten seiner rasanten Entwicklung nicht zuletzt auch kriminelle Elemente, welche sich nun mittels Mojonation in bisher unerreichter Perfektion der Beobachtung durch die Augen der ?ffentlichkeit entziehen k?nnen. 2.5.3. Wirtschaftliche AspekteIn einem bestechend freien Ansatz ist es den Mojonation Entwicklern gelungen, den gordischen Knoten wirtschaftlicher Renditem?glichkeiten und archaischer Kommunikationsformen durch die Etablierung einer eigenen W?hrung zu durchtrennen. Der Mojo als digitale W?hrung der Mojonation kann wie eingehend bereits ausgef?hrt durch die User mittels zur Verf?gungstellung von Ressourcen erworben werden. Der somit erworbene Bestand an Mojos (?virtuelle Token?) kann f?r den eigenen ?Einkauf? in der Mojonation genutzt werden. Als extrem marktwirtschaftliches wie auch basisdemokratisches Element ist die eigene Preisgestaltung der User zu nennen, welche den Preis von Ressourcen und angebotenen Contents rein nach dem Nachfrage ? Angebot ? Prinzip bestimmen. Sind die eigenen Guthaben an Mojos aufgebraucht, muss der Community neuer Content angeboten werden, um am Markt wieder partizipieren zu k?nnen. Cheating und Freeloading werden somit vermieden. Wieweit der virtuelle, auf micro Zahlungssystemen aufbauende Zahlungsverkehr bereits eine erfolgreiche Adaption der realen Welt verk?r